Without a doubt, the most revolutionary and expensive aircraft produced during the Second World War was the Boeing B-29. There were several reasons why the B-29s passed through Natal, in the Northeast region of Brazil, to attack distant Japan.
Rostand Medeiros – https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostand_Medeiros
– Special thanks to my friend João Baptista Rosa Filho for his assistance in providing additional information for this article.
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In 1942, there was never any doubt among the highest political and military authorities in the United States that the Japanese Empire, the enemy nation that carried out the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, had to be bombed relentlessly. This situation has always been seen as natural; however, the methods used to achieve it have been questioned[1].
There was no shortage of heavy bomber models produced in the USA. The problem was that, at that time, Nazi Germany and the territories occupied by that nation also needed to be defeated. In the case of Japan, its political and economic center was located much further away from the reach of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers.
But on September 21, 1942, the United States, a great industrial power, presented a solution to the case. That day, the XB-29 prototype took off from the city of Seattle in the northwest of the United States.
Soon, the large four-engine aircraft was called the B-29 Superfortress. It was the largest bomber the world had ever seen at that time. Its size and sophistication, indeed the arrogance of its very creation, stood as monuments to American wealth and ingenuity. Each plane costs more than half a million dollars, which is five times the price of a British Avro Lancaster four-engine bomber. The B-29 project was considered the most expensive of the entire Second World War, costing approximately three billion dollars.
Construction of each four-engine aircraft required approximately 12,250 kg of aluminum sheet metal (27,000 pounds), more than 454 kg of copper (1,000 pounds), 600,000 rivets, 15,290 meters of wiring (9.5 miles), and 3,218 meters of piping. (2 miles). The aircraft was the world’s first pressurized bomber, equipped with a twelve-man crew, and had an impressive operational radius of 5,500 km (3,250 miles). Much more than the approximately 3,300 km (2,050 miles) that the B-17 and B-24 could travel [2]. It had a strong defensive armament battery, consisting of twelve 12.7 mm caliber machine guns in remote turrets, as well as a 20 mm cannon in the tail and central fire control. A fully loaded B-29 weighed over sixty tons.
The United States Army Air Force (USAAF) required that the new aircraft have a speed greater than 550 km/h, so the B-29 was manufactured with a highly elongated, centrally mounted wing In the fuselage circular Section [4]. The aircraft was powered by four Wright R-3350 Duplex Cyclone engines, which were rated at 2,200 to 3,700 hp (1,640 to 2,760 kW) depending on the model [5]. It was powered by 100-octane gasoline and had two turbochargers for each engine, with the aim of enhancing the bomber’s performance at high altitudes [6].
As the B-29 project progressed, anyone visiting the Dugway Proving Ground, located about 90 miles southwest of Salt Lake City in the western U.S. state of Utah, would be surprised to discover an authentic Japanese village.
The place had two dozen faithfully reproduced wooden houses, each furnished with traditional tatami (straw mats spread on the floor). In 1943, this abandoned community was destroyed for the first time by bombers, showcasing the ease and devastating impact of destruction that would later be experienced by cities in Japan. The houses in this community were constructed with fragile materials, which made them particularly vulnerable.[7]
Around the same time, air personnel identified eight priority industrial targets in Japan, Manchuria (China), and Korea. A study from October 1943 noted that only twenty Japanese cities housed 22% of the country’s entire population. It was later identified that if only 30% of these sites were destroyed, 20% of Japanese production would be lost, and the number of victims could reach 560,000 people in a short period of time [8].
The Americans had their goals, but the extensive development required for the B-29 delayed its entry into service until mid-1943. Once the design was complete, four main assembly plants were built by three separate companies, which were widely dispersed, all over the country. 9].
To achieve this feat, there was the largest subcontracting project in the world at that time. A vast network was established to provide materials, equipment, and civil and military training programs [10].
The Boeing B-29 Superfortress could truly be considered an exceptional aircraft. No other major World War II fighter model, regardless of size, had such a short interval between its first flight and its first appearance in enemy territory: only 20 months [11].
But before that someone would have to leave those planes as close to Japan as possible. But where?
A lie on the path of war
On June 1, 1943, the 58th Bombardment Wing (58th BW) was created and activated in the city of Marietta, Georgia. A large unit that housed five bombardment groups was the Bombardment Group or BG. These five units were the 40th Bombardment Group, 444th Bombardment Group, 462nd Bombardment Group, 468th Bombardment Group, and 472nd Bombardment Group, which primarily had training bases in the Kansas region. In turn, each of these bombing groups had three squadrons, with an average allocation of 20 to 30 B-29 aircraft per squadron.
Later, additional Bombardment Wings (BW) were established, each with its corresponding Bombardment Group (BG). The initial idea was to place all of these machines and their operators in the war theater area known as CBI, or China-Burma-India, which was referred to by the Americans. To organize this growing force, the XX Bomber Command was created on March 28, 1944. It established itself in the city of Kharagpur, India and was led by Major General Kenneth B. Wolfe.[12] The B-29s utilized pre-existing airfields at Chakulia, Piardoba, Dudkhundi, and Kharagpur itself. All of these bases were located in South Bengal and were in close proximity to the port facilities of Calcutta.[13] The B-29 bases in China were located in four locations in the Chengdu area, specifically in Kwanghan, Kuinglai, Hsinching and Pengshan[14].
The B-29 offensive against Japan was called Operation Matterhorn. This operation involved planning the routes for sending B-29s to India and China, as well as determining the use of support bases in these two countries and selecting the targets to be attacked in Japan[15].
While the B-29 and its support and command structure were being created, the Chiefs of Staff decided not to deploy this aircraft to Europe for combat. For the high command, using the B-29 against Germany would deprive the United States of the element of surprise against Japan [16].
To corroborate this plan, in early March 1944, a B-29 with the serial number 41-36963, one of the first to be built, departed from Salina, Kansas and flew to Florida. It took off at night under secret orders. Initially, it flew for an hour over the Atlantic Ocean heading south. Then, the pilot changed course and flew north to Gander Lake, located on the island of Newfoundland, where he landed at the Gander Air Force Base, Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF Station Gander) [17]. From there, “963” flew non-stop to a base in the United Kingdom. The idea was to have technical and tactical personnel from the United States Army Air Forces in Europe evaluate the machine. Over the next two weeks, a thousand citizens, individuals with crucial roles in the war, inspected B-29 “963” at two air bases. In reality, this was all a hoax – an attempt to deceive German intelligence into believing that the B-29 would be stationed in the United Kingdom and target Hitler’s empire [18].
The first B-29 to arrive in India was flown by Colonel Leonard “Jake” Harmon, commander of the 58th Bomb Wing, which took off from Smoky Hill Base in Kansas on March 26, 1944. This B-29, with the serial number 42-6331, arrived at Chakulia, eastern India, seven days later and was delivered to the 40th Bombardment Group.
The author of this text then imagined that this first B-29 used the route passing through Natal, crossing the South Atlantic and heading towards the East. But it seems that in the first moments of this operation, the route through Natal was not used.
According to the American writer Robert A. Mann, author of the book B-29 Superfortress-Chronology-1934-1960, from April 1, 1944, eleven B-29s departed from Pratt Air Base, in Kansas. They then landed at the Presque Island base, in the state of Maine, on the border of the United States and Canada, where they continued to Newfoundland and landed at the Gander base[19]. After refueling and their crews were ready, the B-29s flew across the Atlantic Ocean toward USAAF Station 10 at Menara Airport in sunny Marrakesh, Morocco. The trip then continued with a landing in Cairo, Egypt, to finally make the last stretch to Chakulia, India.
Other aircraft continued to use this route, but it was not long before a B-29, number 42-6350, belonging to the 462nd Bombardment Group, suffered an accident in Marrakesh. There were no casualties, but there was a total loss of the plane [20].
The B-29 That Lit Up Natal Eve And Its Survivor
Perhaps due to wear and tear on the crews due to the long crossing of the Atlantic, or on the machines, or the flight time, or the weather conditions, at some point the B-29s began to leave Kansas heading for Natal.
I did not find any additional information indicating the exact beginning of this passage, the correct route used or the number of planes present. But through the report by military doctor George A. Johannessen, delivered on August 23, 2007 to researchers at the Rutgers School of Arts and Sciences, Rutgers University, in New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States, we have the information that “the first The B-29s came to Natal.” Dr. Johannessen wondered, “Why would they come in Natal?” [21].
This question from Dr. Johannessen is even more surprising considering that in the same report he states that Natal was the main route for planes departing from the United States. Furthermore, during the winter, it served as an air route for planes from the Eighth Air Force, based in England. He also commented that at the beginning of the conflict, planes headed to West Africa, Sicily, Italy, China, Burma (now Myanmar) and India passed through Natal.
The doctor reported that the B-29s did not land in Belém and were heading directly to Natal. He simply didn’t comment on where they came from. What if these planes landed in Miami or stopped at Waller Air Force Base on the island of Trinidad (now Trinidad and Tobago)? I owe you!
But they continued to arrive in Natal, the only city in South America that received the B-29s on their way to Japan, the code that Natal received as their destination was UJAW – UNIFORM, JULIET, ALFA, WHISKIE. Without a doubt, a code created to appear in documentation and be used via radio [22].
On August 10, 1944, a B-29 crashed after taking off from Parnamirim Field. Again, through Dr. Johannessen’s story, we have some details of this terrible accident in which there was only one survivor.
What we know about this aircraft is that it was a Boeing B-29-30-BW Superfortress model, number 42-24482. It was delivered to the USAAF on May 24, 1944, at the Boeing factory in Wichita, Kansas [23]. The crew consisted of ten people. They were 1st Lt. Austin J. Peek, pilot, 2nd Lt. Willard R. Heintzelman; co-pilot, 2nd Lt. John F. O’Neill; navigator, 2nd Lt. Leroy Judson; bombardier, 2nd Lt. Dale E. Shillinger; engineer. Of Flight, the third sergeant. Harold R. Brown was the radio operator, Sergeant Kurt F. Seeler served as the radar operator, Corporal Anthony A. Cobbino was the left side gunner, Corporal Walter Roy Newcomb was the right side gunner, and Corporal David C. Prendiz served as the tail gunner.
According to Dr. Johannessen, the accident occurred around ten o’clock at night on Thursday, August 10th. The B-29 took off to cross the Atlantic, but unfortunately, the plane crashed approximately 5.5 kilometers (3.5 miles) from the Parnamirim field runway, just a few kilometers away from Ponta Negra beach. When this B-29 was preparing to cross the ocean, its fall caused a massive explosion, fueled by the nearly 31,000 liters of 100-octane fuel it was carrying. Dr. Johannessen witnessed this event and stated that “the entire sky lit up” [24].
According to the doctor, navigator John F. O’Neill somehow managed to exit the plane and landed in some bushes, resulting in a minor injury to his pinky finger. In his report, Dr. Johannessen did not comment on the navigator’s use of parachutes.
Even without having all the data available, when discussing the case by telephone with our friend João Baptista Rosa Filho, known as J. B. Rosa Filho believes that the aircraft accident occurred due to a fire in one of the B-29 engines. This may explain why the B-29 lost power and crashed.
This friend of ours is from the beautiful city of Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul. He has been in the civil aviation sector for 33 years and is a private pilot. He was a test pilot for the gaucho company Aeromot Aeronaves e Motores, worked as a mechanic for the defunct airline Varig, and also writes books about the Second World War. For this seasoned and experienced professional, whatever happened on the B-29 must have been extremely severe and sudden, as he only gave navigator O’Neill enough time to save himself.
J. B. Rosa Filho believes that pilot Austin J. Peek and co-pilot Willard R. Heintzelman attempted to regain control of the aircraft in order to make an emergency landing or establish a suitable altitude for everyone to safely parachute. But the plane probably sank quickly since only the navigator, O’Neill, managed to save himself. The friend has no doubt that this survivor used a parachute because the lowest speeds of a B-29, without loss of lift, were around 150 km/h. The impact of a person against some bushes at that speed surely wouldn’t be significant enough. It doesn’t only affect his little finger.
The successful exit of the navigator from the plane can be attributed to his seating position in the front cockpit. His workstation was located directly behind the pilot, providing him with a view towards the rear of the plane and to the left, as well as access to an evacuation hatch.
Following the instructions of our friend J. B. Rosa Filho, possibly John F. O’Neill, noticed that one of the engines was on fire and realized that the B-29 was in danger. Afterwards, regardless of whether he received an order to do so, he unfastened his seat belt, opened the door, and swiftly entered the hallway to save his life. The Great Architect of the Universe completed the picture to facilitate his jump by providing some mangaba trees at the place of his landing [25].
Even with the invaluable help of an experienced aviation professional, such as J. B. Rosa Filho, of course, everything I write about this accident is speculative. But what is certain is that on that night, amidst the Natal skies, John F. O’Neill was a very fortunate man!
We know that there were reports from many people in Natal who observed a strong flash in the sky overnight. But it is worth noting that there were other cases of accidents and aircraft destruction in the Parnamirim field region.
Paulo Pinheiro de Viveiros commented in his book “História da Aviação no Rio Grande do Norte” that “The entire city was surprised when, at 9 p.m. on February 6, 1942, a large red flash suddenly illuminated the sky, starting from the south side, near the Atlantic” [26].
The aircraft in question was a B-17, which, like the B-29 in August 1944, crashed shortly after takeoff. It was a B-17E, numbered 41-2482. The plane was fully loaded with gasoline and was completely destroyed. Nine crew members died, and they were all buried in the Alecrim cemetery.
Disappearance in the Atlantic
Exactly one month and eight days after this accident, another B-29 was lost. He left Natal and simply disappeared into the Atlantic Ocean.
The aircraft was a Martin-Omaha B-29-1-MO Superfortress, numbered 42-65203, built under license by the Glenn L. Martin Company of Omaha, Nebraska, and delivered to the USAAF on June 2, 1944. It departed from the United States on August 24, 1944, and disappeared on September 18. The plane was heading to Accra airport, the capital of the then British colony of the Gold Coast (currently the Republic of Ghana), in West Afric,a after taking off from Natal.
According to the official report, this B-29 crashed into the sea 2,250 kilometers (1,400 miles) from Natal, and the entire ten-man crew disappeared. They were 1st Lt. Hugh T. Roberts, pilot; 2nd Lt. John T. Kirby, co-pilot; 2nd Lt. LaVerne Bebermeyer, navigator; 2nd Lt. Paul Clyde Oberg, flight engineer; 2nd Lt. Roxy D. Menta, bombardier; Second Lieutenant David Maas, Central Fire Control Operator – CFC; Sergeant Conrad I. Bruflat, gunner; Corporal James Husser, left gunner; Corporal James Woodie Day Jr., radio operator; and Corporal John G. Giannios, right gunner.
When examining the document referencing this disaster (MACR 8525), I discovered the following information regarding the weather conditions on that day and in that specific area. “Cumulus clouds are typically scattered or broken, with their peaks at 8,000 feet. The winds at flight level range between 50° and 100°, with speeds ranging from 14 to 25 knots, and an average of 16 knots.”
I will once again draw upon the experience of my friend J. B. Rosa Filho informed me that the weather conditions presented would not be problematic for an airplane like the B-29 to attempt a water landing. The airplane measured 30.18 meters in length, 43.05 meters in wingspan, 8.46 meters in height, and had a wing area of 161.3 square meters.
There are several reports and photographs showing B-29 aircraft that crashed into the sea but remained partially afloat, allowing their crews valuable time to escape in lifeboats. But for this to happen, the pilots would have to successfully land the large plane on the water without tipping over and ensure the integrity of the aircraft is maintained. However, J. B. Rosa Filho reminds us that landing on water requires a certain level of experience and training on the part of the crew. In the case of the B-29 with the serial number 42-65203, it is unclear whether the pilot and co-pilot’s knowledge could have been of assistance in this situation.
In the case of this aircraft, it is highly probable that it experienced a severe mechanical failure while airborne, resulting in such extensive damage that there was no opportunity to take any action. Another idea is that the crew made a mistake by submerging the machine in the water.
Furthermore, the American authorities had such limited information about this accident that it appears the conditions for a search and rescue operation were not met. If these searches occurred by chance, there is not a single comment, let alone a comma, indicating their beginning and end, or their results.
While other MACR-type reports present an enormous amount of information about damaged or missing aircraft, the case of B-29 42-65203 is an exception. It is unknown whether there was any radio contact, distress call, or if any boat or plane in the area reported seeing life jackets, aircraft parts, or bodies. Absolutely nothing!
This B-29 belonged to the 462nd Bombardment Group (BG), and its ten crew members were declared dead on October 27, 1948.
Issues
It may seem that these two reported accidents indicate that the route across the Atlantic Ocean to India and China posed problems for B-29 aircraft. But while researching this topic, I discovered that the utilization of the already established transport routes to the East by these planes was highly successful.
In his book “B-29 Superfortress-Chronology-1934-1960,” Robert A. Mann highlights that there were only seven accidents on the route from the United States to India between April 2 (the arrival of the first B-29 in India) and September 18, 1944 (when the B-29 29 that left Natal went missing in the Atlantic). No fewer than 163 of these heavy bombers managed to land safely on Indian soil.[28]
In this informative list, the author indicates the number of aircraft involved, the squadrons to which they belonged, and even the name that the crews gave to these aircraft [29]. Unfortunately, the author did not comment on the routes followed by these B-29s. However, they reported that during this period, there were numerous issues when these aircraft were stationed in India or utilizing bases in China for attacking Japan. The author notes that during this period, 52 B-29 aircraft were lost or severely damaged, resulting in several fatalities.
Unlike the American heavy bombers operating in Europe, whose bases were located in Great Britain and Italy, and therefore close to enemy territory, the B-29s based in India and China were further away from Japan. Additionally, bombers in Europe had a more organized and closely-knit support infrastructure. In the East, the situation was much more complicated. An example: Several B-29s were converted into transport planes because, in order to launch attacks on Japan from Chinese bases, the Americans had to transport fuel, bombs, and other necessary supplies from India. The expenses were astronomical.
In China, B-29s flew from four newly created bases, which were built by thousands of Chinese workers who assembled everything manually. The take-off runways were constructed using crushed rock and transported with minimal machinery. The leveling of the tracks was done using enormous stone rollers, which were pulled by multiple men and women. Unfortunately, hundreds of Chinese workers lost their lives in accidents during this process. They were locations where the structures hindered the maintenance, takeoffs, and landings of the aircraft. Adding to this challenge is the fact that air routes connecting India and China pass over the Himalayan mountains, which are the highest in the world and often experience severe weather conditions.[30]
Max Hastings notes in “Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944-45” that the airlift to Kunming, the capital and largest city of Yunnan province in northern China, was considered one of the most dangerous and unpopular missions of World War II. This mission resulted in a cumulative loss of 450 aircraft. Crew efficiency and morale were notoriously low. Airmen who survived plane crashes had to endure some of the most remote and untamed regions in the world, inhabited by indigenous people who occasionally spared their lives but always confiscated their belongings.
Hastings believes that the initial B-29 attacks in the East were a “hoax.” According to him, the biggest threat to the survival of the crews was not the enemy’s fighters and anti-aircraft guns, but their own planes. As one commander put it, his B-29 had “as many insects as the entomology department at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.” The hydraulics, electricity, machine gun and cannon turrets, and especially the power plants, were found to be highly unreliable.
The four Curtis Wright R-3350 engines were “a mechanic’s nightmare.” Due to an alarming tendency of the rear cylinders to overheat, partly caused by the minimal clearance between the cylinder baffles and the cowling, the engines were always prone to bursting into flames during flight. These engines were also found to have an additional tendency to ingest their own valves. Additionally, the magnesium parts were burned and melted.
Due to the high magnesium content in the crankcase alloy, engine fires could occur, sometimes burning at a temperature of approximately 5600°F (3100°C). The engines remained temperamental, and overheating problems, which were not fully resolved, were often so severe that the main spar could burn out in a matter of seconds, leading to catastrophic wing failure.[31]
Pilot Jack Caldwell recorded that “the plane always felt like it was straining every rivet at over 25,000 feet.” Adding to all the problems of the B-29s were the inexperience and deficiencies of their crews. The USAAF recognized that the challenges in training crews to pilot this “warship of the skies” were monumental.
And the missions became difficult. On August 19, 1944, 71 B-29 aircraft were prepared to bomb the Yawata steel plant on the island of Kyushu, Japan. 61 planes flew during the day, and 10 flew during the night. Five B-29s were destroyed by enemy action, two crashed before or during takeoff, and eight more were lost due to technical failures. Only 112 tons of bombs were delivered, resulting in the loss of $7.5 million worth of aircraft and their valuable crews.[32]
This monumental effort enabled the B-29s to launch attacks on Japan from outside of China, albeit with significant risk and minimal outcomes. The USAAF was uncomfortable with the overwhelming amount of positive publicity given to the new giant bombers in the United States, as it captivated the public’s imagination. Commanders knew how little the planes were actually accomplishing.[33]
Near the End
While the routes across the Atlantic Ocean, whether through Natal or Newfoundland, were safe, the distances from Kansas to India were enormous: between 16,000 and 17,000 kilometers. Added to this were the dangerous air routes between India and China, with the Himalayan mountains in between, in addition to the dangers of facing Japanese extremists in their country. The cost was extremely high in terms of fuel, aircraft and, most importantly, human lives. Soon, the American command ordered the famous “Marines” to land on the islands of Saipan, Guam and Tinian between June and July 1944. These islands were part of the group known as the Marianas.
At a cost of more than 5,400 Marines killed and 18,000 wounded, the Americans successfully captured these strategically important islands and quickly began construction of landing strips for B-29s.
The distance from Kansas to the Mariana Islands is 11,300 kilometers, while the distance from Tinian, for example, to Japan is approximately 2,400 kilometers. Large foundations were laid and a complete structure was established.
With this, the Americans no longer needed to send their powerful bombers to fight across the Atlantic Ocean. They left California, flew over the vast Pacific Ocean and reached the new bases through the Hawaiian Islands.[34]
Other bases were soon built on newly conquered islands, such as Iwo Jima. Attacks on Japan became an everyday occurrence, with hundreds of B-29s involved. These aircraft were constantly improved, their defects were corrected and they were used more effectively.
By August 1945, the B-29s had devastated Japan’s military, naval facilities, and industry. Although the country lacked significant military resources, the Americans carried out the controversial atomic bomb attacks on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The B-29 that dropped the Hiroshima bomb, named “Enola Gay”, departed from Tinian [35]…
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[1] See Hastings, Max. Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944-45, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2008, Page 333.
[2] See Hastings, Max. Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944-45 Alfred A. Knopf. New York, 2008, Pages 333 and 334.
[3] Haulman, Daniel L. Hitting Home – The Air Offensive Against Japan, Air Force History and Museums Program, 1999, p. 6.
[4] http://delprado.com.br/blog/2012/05/22/b-29-superfortress/
[5] Bowers, Peter M. Warbird Tech Series – B-29 Superfortress. Specialty Press Publishers and Wholesalers, Minnesota, 1999. Page 14.
[6] Haulman, Daniel L. Hitting Home – The Air Offensive Against Japan, Air Force History and Museums Program, 1999, p. 7.
[7] In addition to the Japanese village, the American military faithfully reproduced a German village. During World War II, the two sites were bombed at least 27 times and rebuilt in order to test the use of incendiary weapons against populated cities. See The Asia-Pacific Journal-Japan Focus, April 15, 2018, Volume 16, Issue 8, Number 3, Article ID 5136. Available at https://apjjf.org/2018/08/Plung.html
[8] Hastings, Max. Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944-45 Alfred A. Knopf. New York, 2008, Page 333.
[9] Two factories were operated by Boeing, one in the city of Renton, Washington, and the other in Wichita, Kansas. There was a factory controlled by the Bell company, in the city of Marietta, state of Georgia and a plant owned by Martin’s company in the city of Omaha, capital of the state of Nebraska. See Bowers, Peter M. Boeing B-29 Superfortress. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 1999. Pages. 319 and 322.
[10] Bowers, Peter M. Warbird Tech Series – B-29 Superfortress. Specialty Press Publishers and Wholesalers, Minnesota, 1999. Page 100.
[11] Bowers, Peter M. Warbird Tech Series – B-29 Superfortress. Specialty Press Publishers and Wholesalers, Minnesota, 1999. Page 4.
[12] Haulman, Daniel L. Hitting Home – The Air Offensive Against Japan, Air Force History and Museums Program, 1999, p. 9.
[13] See https://www.456fis.org/HISTORY_OF_THE_B-29.htm
[14] See https://www.456fis.org/HISTORY_OF_THE_B-29.htm
[15] Graham, Simmons M. B-29 Superfortress – Giant bomber of World War Two and Korea, Pen & Sword Aviation, Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England. Pages 97 and 98.
[16] Haulman, Daniel L. Hitting Home – The Air Offensive Against Japan, Air Force History and Museums Program, 1999, p. 7. And Pace, Steve. Boeing B-29 Superfortress The Crowood Prees, Berkshire, England, 2003. Page 94.
[17] For Canadians, the Gander base has the same historical aspect that Natal has for Brazilians, as a location located in a useful strategic point, which served Allied aviation during the Second World War, where immense facilities were built to receive thousands of professionals and their transport and patrol aircraft against submarines. Canadians from Newfoundland claim that Gander was “The largest airport in the world in World War II”. About RCAF Station Gander see https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/politics/gander-base.php
[18] Graham, Simmons M. B-29 Superfortress – Giant bomber of World War Two and Korea, Pen & Sword Aviation, Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England. Pages 84 to 86.
[19] Mann, Robert A, B-29 Superfortress-Chronology-1934-1960, McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, Jefferson, North Carolina, and London. Page 31.
[20] About this accident see https://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/98390
[21] Dr. Johannessen was a native of Seattle, Washington, and was born on January 10, 1919. During World War II he served as an officer in the United States Army Medical Administration Corps (US Army) at several hospitals in the United States. United States and the South Atlantic region, including hospitals in Belém and Natal. In his rich report he commented that he even treated German prisoners who were brought to his hospital, captured by the sinking of a submarine. See https://oralhistory.rutgers.edu/interviewees/1011-johannessen-george-a
[22] Mann, Robert A, B-29 Superfortress-Chronology-1934-1960, McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, Jefferson, North Carolina, and London. Page 15.
[23] More details about the accident see https://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/98432
[24] We do not know if this plane crashed in Natal had all its fuel capacity, but we know that the fuel in the B-29s was transported in fourteen tanks on the outer wing, eight on the inner wing and four tanks in the bombing area, giving a maximum capacity of almost 31,000 liters, or 8,168 US gallons. A modification added four tanks to the center section of the wing, bringing total fuel capacity to almost 36,000 liters, or 9,438 US gallons. See https://www.456fis.org/HISTORY_OF_THE_B-29.htm
[25] Military physician Dr. George A. Johannessen’s account does not guarantee that the survivor of the B-29 crash on August 10, 1944 was navigator John F. O’Neill. But on the website https://pt.findagrave.com/memorial/52036385/walter-roy-newcomb there is confirmation of this information.
[26] Viveiros, Paulo P. History of Aviation in Rio Grande do Norte, Editora Universitária, Natal-RN, Brazil, 1974. Pages. 158 and 159.
[27] More about this accident see – https://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/98447 and https://www.newspapers.com/clip/6331827/2nd-lt-laverne-bebermeyer-still/
[28] Mann, Robert A, B-29 Superfortress-Chronology-1934-1960, McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, Jefferson, North Carolina, and London. Pages. 32 to 34. The first of these accidents was in Marrakesh (previously mentioned in the text), the second was with plane B-29 number 42-6249, happened on April 18, at Payne Field, Cairo, Egypt, due to a storm of sand and there were no deaths. The three other accidents all occurred on April 21, in the Karachi region, Pakistan, due to engine problems and the consequences of a sandstorm. Those involved were B-29 planes numbers 42-6345, 42-6369 and 42-63357. In this last accident there were five deaths. More details about some of these accidents see https://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/98393 and https://pt.findagrave.com/memorial/90940187/christopher-d-montagno
[29] Mann, Robert A, B-29 Superfortress-Chronology-1934-1960, McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, Jefferson, North Carolina, and London. Pages. 31 to 37.
[30] See https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2016/09/07/operation-matterhorn/
[31] See https://www.fighter-planes.com/info/b29.htm
[32] Hastings, Max. Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944-45 Alfred A. Knopf. New York, 2008, Page 334.
[33] Hastings, Max. Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944-45 Alfred A. Knopf. New York, 2008, Page 335.
[34] Pace, Steve. Boeing B-29 Superfortress The Crowood Prees, Berkshire, England, 2003. Page 88.
[35] Pace, Steve. Boeing B-29 Superfortress The Crowood Prees, Berkshire, England, 2003. Pages 97 to 102.
TOK de HISTÓRIA 
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